Augustus Caesar

James Sterrett

June 26^th, 2026

Roman History

UMD

Augustus Caesar

The ancient Romans were one of the world’s greatest empires. Augustus Caesar (63 BCE-19 AD) was one of the greatest of these Romans. He left a substantial legacy.  He was the great-nephew of Julius Caesar and later became Rome’s first official emperor. He created the systems and structure that led the Roman Empire; this was part of his significant legacy. Julius Caesar was Octavian’s predecessor and his great-uncle; Julius Caesar was one of the most impactful Romans. His successor, Octavian, was also an impactful Roman, for some of the same and different reasons. Julius Caesar was a widely known and respected leader; he was also known for helping the lower classes significantly. This shows a level of empathy, social understanding, political savvy, and kindness that is not typically of this era. This era is defined by war, slaves, killing, adultery, and widespread war. Julius Caesar is a popular historical leader because of his social programs to help the less fortunate, naming Augustus as his successor, and his clear-headed leadership.  

Augustus Caesar was the first emperor of Rome, but what was Rome? Rome was a civilization, based in central Italy and founded on the Palatine Hill. Rome was a city in central Italy; Rome was also the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire at its peak stretched from England to Spain to Northern Africa to Persia. Rome’s rise was unexpected and unlikely; however, it became one of the most powerful empires in history. Ancient Rome started out with seven kings who ruled Rome until it became a republic. Ancient Rome was particularly known for its military, war, economic, and republican characteristics/strengths. Rome had a strong but small administrative staff. Rome was one of the world’s greatest ever empires; its fall left a large Dark Age for Europe that lasted for over 600 years after its fall.

Augustus Caesar was the first designated emperor of Rome during Rome’s golden age; he had previously led a civil war against his predecessors’ killers, afterward fighting against his own previous allies. Augustus only fought two wars against foreign enemies; he fought against the Cantabri and the Dalamatae.[1] He fought against the Cantabri after defeating Antony; he fought against the Dalamatae in his teens.[2] These wars gave foreign war definition to Augustus; however, he mainly fought foreign wars. However, in the beginning of his political career, he fought with the Roman Senate; until betraying them due to being called “the boy; this may have been just an excuse; however, there were rumors that he would be betrayed as well.[3] Julius Caesar was known as a dictator; Augustus was known as an emperor. This is an important distinction; Romans hated kings after the first seven kings of Rome. Augustus Caesar led Rome between the years of 27BCE-14AD; this was during the birth of Christ, an important date for many religions. [4] 

Paganism was at its peak during Augustus' reign, and there were plentiful temples dedicated to Roman gods throughout the Mediterranean. During the time of the birth of Christ, Paganism was at its peak. Roman Paganism was a version of Greek Paganism; however, it was more prominently depicted as war/warfare. Roman gods were the Roman version of Greek gods. Roman gods were the Roman version of the same Greek god; they were given similar names and were more warlike. That is because Rome was more focused on war and conquest than the ancient Greek cities. Augustus Caesar helped bring about the end of the Roman Republic, became Rome's first emperor, and significantly influenced Roman history. The current calendar is based on the birth of Jesus, which occurred during Augustus's reign. Augustus Caesar rebuilt critical Roman infrastructure, created a firefighter squad, reestablished Rome as the Roman Empire, expanded Rome’s borders, executed the killers of Julius Caesar, and finally redefined Roman History.

Octavian Caesar came from one of the original families of Ancient Rome. Octavian Caesar came from a family of Romans called the Octavii.[5] They were from the ancient Velitre (who were a small group of the ancient Volscans) tribe in Italy, which was an original Roman family that had been around since the time of the Roman kings.[6]  The Octavii were incredibly famous in Velitre; they even had a road named after them.[7] This historical importance shows the historical legacy of the ancient Octavii family and who Augustus Caesar came from. This is important because it shows the context and lineage of Octavian’s birth and where the name comes from. They originally were a plebian family, but they were upgraded to senator status and given patrician privileges by one of the Roman kings.[8] The Octavii were extremely wealthy.[9] Even in ancient Rome, Africa had a heavy stigma; Octavian was insulted by being accused of being a descendant of Africa.[10] 

Julius Caesar was Augustus's great-uncle and predecessor; he also helped initiate the collapse of the Roman Republic. Julius Caesar was responsible for the start of the end of the Roman Republic. He created the conditions for a civil war that included his allies, and then the alliance fell apart. One of the worst things Julius did was take over two million war slaves; however, he also gave welfare, money, food, games, and support to the poor (who loved him).[11] This duality is important because it adds complexity to his character. These characteristics meant that he truly was a man of the people for the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar created the systems and programs that allowed Octavian, his nephew, to become emperor. Octavian was the name given to him by his enemies; he wanted to be called Gaius Caesar. Octavian was adopted by his great-uncle Julius Caesar and became the heir to Rome at the age of 18, in the year April 44 BCE. [12] Julius Caesar was killed by Brutus and Cassius, who deeply resented him for his political and military coup.[13] Octavian fought the Roman civil wars and his battles “to avenge Julius Caesar.”[14] Octavian, later known as Augustus, executed Brutus and Cassius after becoming emperor. There were riots in the streets after Julius Caesar was killed due to his vibrant popularity with the poor. Octavian was a brilliant general; however, he sometimes was considered cruel.

Octavian was Julius Caesar’s nephew; after he became emperor, he became Augustus. Augustus was born on the 23^rd of September in 63 BCE, when Rome was the most populated city in the world. [15] Octavian’s father was named Gaius Octavius, and his mother was named Atia.[16]  The birth of Octavian was not a widely known and celebrated date at the time. However, his mom was a noble, and his father was a senator.[17] This gave Octavian an element of privilege, social status, wealth, and safety that many other Roman citizens did not have. However, at this time, the chance of the mother dying in childbirth was still high, no matter who they were. Octavian’s father died when he was only four. Octavian was militarily decorated and given honors at the age of 16, due to Julius Caesar’s successful military campaigns. [18] Octavian was given military honors and an award at 16 in his African campaigns.[19] At this time, Rome had a population of more than one million people, which would make it a very large city even by today's standards.

Octavian eventually became a primavera and a princeps (first citizen) [20]  Gauis/Octavian’s name changed to Augustus after he became emperor; this was an honorary title/name change that was supposed to show his established status in Rome. Octavian was usually what Augustus was called by his enemies; his birth name was Gaius. One thing to consider is that Augustus is referred to as Octavian in many historical texts. Although he was popular, much of his story was written by his political opponents. This is interesting because in many places he is written as “Octavian” and not “Gaius” or “Augustus”. This means that as a historian I have to think that maybe some of the things written about him are possibly somewhat misinformed or potentially biased. Another thing to back that up is that Tacitus, one of the main ancient Augustus historians, is mainly known for a love of the Roman Republic/democracy.

A Triumvirate was a Roman political arrangement consisting of three leaders who held concentrated power. This group of Primavera/Triumvirate included: Lepidus, Antony, and Octavian. Originally, Augustus and Antony were enemies; Antony typically insulted Octavian by calling him a “Thurian”.[21] Soon after they took power, this group of three men ordered the killings of over 2,000 Romans. [22] They did this to enrich themselves and fill Rome’s coffers. However, Antony was infinitely thirsty for money, pleasure, and excess; he wasn’t satisfied by even the most extreme of excess. This bloodshed was partially the consequence of Julius Caesar being assassinated by those he gave clemency to; they felt that they needed to get revenge and also, they wanted to protect themselves from a similar fate. The Roman Triumvirate started fighting fairly quickly, which led to a civil war. This group of leaders quickly became enemies and fought a civil war. Lepidus controlled North Africa, while Octavian controlled the western part of the empire. Finally, Antony had Greece, Turkey, and Egypt. The Triumvirate most likely lasted until 32 B.C.E; Lepidus was removed in 36 B.C.E and Antony was killed in 31 B.C.E. [23] Octavian attempted to distance himself from the Triumvirate; however, he remained closely associated with it.[24] He sought to distance himself because he had become more powerful than Lepidus and Antony. He also wanted to dissociate from the Triumvirate because it became associated with violence and civil conflict. Octavian killed them both in battle in a brutal series of wars.

Caius was a major leader throughout the Mediterranean; Antony was the final major enemy/ Antony was defeated at the Battle of Actium after becoming involved with Cleopatra, the powerful queen of Egypt. Agrippa commanded forces at the Battle of Actium, and Augustus became the most powerful person in the Roman world. This significant battle cemented the Republic's demise and marked the foundation of the beginning of the Roman Empire. This structure of government lasted for centuries afterward, even under some extremely ineffective, cruel, and excessive rulers. The notable god that helped Augustus win the Battle of Actium was thought to be the god Apollo.[25]Apollo is one of the 12 main Olympian Greek gods and, in particular, is the god of: archery, healing and music. Augustus viewed the former Roman Republic’s aristocracy/nobles as worthy of scorn.

Augustus was a leader who viewed Aristocracy as unsuited to rule. Augustus was known as someone who despised the nobles; he disliked them because he viewed them as “arrogant and selfish”. This makes me think that Augustus in the modern day would be viewed as a far-left-wing Democratic emperor.[26] Nobles and aristocrats are typically viewed somewhat negatively by many people in much of the world today. This makes me think that Augustus was ahead of his time.

The cause of the fall of the Roman Republic and the creation of the Roman Empire was the destabilizing civil wars of the last century before 0 AD. According to Tacitus, one reason for the creation of the Roman Empire and the fall of the Roman Republic was the deeply divided and fractured Roman political system.[27] During the Roman Republic, especially towards the end, there were many civil wars and violent uprisings which threatened the very fabric of Roman civilization. That was one of the reasons that Augustus decided to turn Rome into an empire; he also wanted sole power, but it wasn’t completely self- interest in power. Most likely, Augustus very early on in his life viewed himself as ‘supernaturally lucky” or fortunate.[28] Augustus's political career began when he inherited Julius Caesar's estate.

Augustus served as a Roman consul for many years and maintained support by keeping food affordable. Augustus first held the title of consul, a leadership position in the Roman Republic that was traditionally shared by two individuals.[29] The consul served as a military leader and statesman and can be loosely compared to a system with two presidents. In Roman politics, there were other public offices, including the praetors, aediles, tribunes, and quaestors. These political offices were important to the Roman Republic and allowed political candidates to rise over time. Augustus held his power by giving the army bonuses and the people of Rome “cheap food.”[30] “Even today, 'cheap food' is a main sticking point for modern politicians; the price of food in part sometimes even today is very important to modern politicians who can be hurt by very high inflation. Even in the richest country in the history of the world- the United States- food is a major sticking point for many Americans. Octavian was smart; he built his legacy by creating social programs that are popular with the people.

Octavian built and designed a substantial legacy that continues shaping the world even today. Augustus Caesar’s legacy for Rome included: a strong centralized government, flourishing literature, wealth flowing to Rome, and vast numbers of traders throughout the empire. [31] Caius also left a long-term legacy for Rome by creating the first fire brigade in Rome and also creating a local militia; these groups were open to freedmen.[32] Caius creating a fire brigade is a significant achievement because Rome was extremely susceptible to fire, man-made and natural. Octavian creating a local militia was important to protect Rome from rebellions and tribes that existed right outside the empire’s borders. Octavian created that legacy partially from restoring temples, building new temples, starting new construction projects, and building new buildings in the heart of Rome.[33] This leads to a legacy that lasts even to today when tourists visit, study, and learn from the ancient Roman ruins. Augustus Caesar personally strengthened Roman religion and led a large religious revival throughout the Roman Empire.[34] At the same time, the rise of Christianity began during Augustus's lifetime. Octavian had a kind of “aura” that made him special.

Augustus Caesar changed what it meant to be a Roman citizen in the Roman Empire. A peer reviewed journal’s author wrote written by Pilar states, “in the Augustan period Roman citizenship went from being expressed through action—paying taxes, military service, voting to a citizenship expressed through symbols—wearing a toga or speaking Latin—i.e., a sign of social distinction.”[35] This means that the shift from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire created a large change in how citizenship was viewed and distinguished. Roman citizenship changed for the typically higher-ranking Roman from having a chance to share power or have significant independent power to being subservient to a Roman Emperor. Many Roman citizens migrated from mainland Italy to the provinces, meaning that many citizens never saw Rome itself. It also meant that many Roman citizens never had the power and rights that previous generations of Roman citizens had after Augustus. However, Augustus remained popular because he maintained peace throughout much of his reign.

Augustus Caesar was viewed extremely positively when he was alive; he is still recognized even today as positive. Augustus Caesar had a "divine" aura that led many people to view him as a god or near-god during his reign.[36] Leaders being viewed as gods is often associated with brutal dictators throughout history; however, at this point in history, that wasn’t always true. Augustus Caesar formally became a god in January 42 BCE, according to the Roman Senate.[37] This was formal, bringing Augustus to the apex of human life; other notable figures that have made it to “god” status include: Alexander the Great, Kim Jong Un, and Egyptian Pharaohs. Another example was Alexander the Great, who was not generally viewed as a brutal ruler. It is still true today and has been true for a while, but it was not always true back then. [38] Other major leaders who were brutal but viewed as gods include the Bolsheviks of Russia; they were pretty bad as well.

Augustus was a widely respected leader throughout the world during his time and afterward. According to the well-known Roman historian Tacitus, who often viewed Roman emperors critically, Augustus was portrayed positively.[39] This is important because it meant that Augustus must have been a particularly good emperor and leader; it also meant that he wasn’t disdained by a large portion of the educated class. Augustus's empire was viewed positively by many provincials (those living outside central Italy).[40] This was important because it meant that the outside of the empire was less likely to rebel, happier paying taxes, and allowed for a more prosperous Roman Empire. This might have been one of the reasons that Rome was as peaceful as it was when Augustus was emperor. Augustus Caesar was a savvy military general; however, he mainly used his second-in-command, Agrippa, for his military campaigns.

Augustus Caesar expanded Rome’s borders, built the empire, and created social programs. One of his social programs was that he gave every Roman adult citizen 100 Denarii and 250 Denarii to all veterans. In comparison, Augustus Caesar asked for his Praetorian cohorts to be paid 375 Denarii versus the Roman military wage of 225 Denarii.[41] According to modern silver values, the Denarii was a silver coin, and in comparison, it is worth approximately $330 dollars today. The veteran’s payment of 250 Denarii is worth approximately $810 USD dollars today. This is similar to the United States Covid-19 checks, however, for a completely different reason. Augustus's generosity paid off well.

Augustus created organizational and bureaucratic changes to Rome that allowed Rome to thrive for centuries afterward. Augustus expanded Rome's power by improving its collection of information. In particular, he established population censuses and gathered economic and administrative data. Specifically, Augustus created a particular census for the entire province of Gaul; this gave Rome much better data, helped the Roman Empire last, and finally gave modern-day historians important data.[42] Augustus Caesar, like the rest of the Romans, dreamed of conquering foreign peoples and subjecting them to Roman rule.[43] They found this attractive because it allowed them to increase the tax base, acquire valuable goods, expand military recruitment, increase trade, gain access to economic and military resources, and acquire land for military veterans. An example of this was the Indian and British peoples.

The Romans viewed India, which was conquered by Alexander the Great, as a golden civilization to conquer. Ancient India was viewed by the Romans as a potential target for conquest. That would have allowed them greater access to the Silk Road and the jungles of India. The Silk Road was a trade route between Turkey and China that traded silk, knowledge, and other valuable goods. Controlling the Silk Road in antiquity allowed for massive profits. My main point about the Romans trying to conquer India is that it would have led to a cultural infusion for Rome and India; India also would have expanded Christianity into India, which may have changed modern-day global politics. It also would have allowed the Romans to control more of the Silk Road, which could have significantly increased their profits. The other of Augustus’ targets, the Britons, were eventually incorporated into Rome.

The Romans eventually conquered Southern and Central England; however, they were not successful in conquering Scotland/ Northern England. This may have been a key reason for the long- held cultural differences between England and Scotland. In the modern day, Scotland has even tried to break away from England and become their own separate country. It is considered a separate country by FIFA and has its own team, which qualified for the 2026 World Cup. This modern-day cultural reference can be compared to the Romans’ practice of putting people in the Coliseum. Augustus’s succession was disputed between Tiberius and Agrippina.

Augustus’s succession was partially decided by Livia, his wife. Augustus fell in love with an aristocratic woman named Livia when he was 24; he fell in love with her because of her beauty and mind.[44] At this time, Livia came from an aristocratic family, so it gave Augustus some advantages; Augustus was also extremely powerful at this time and was used to having his way.[45] It was not obviously politically advantageous for either of them; however, they fell in love enthusiastically.[46] Augustus had a stepson named Tiberius, whom his wife, Livia, helped elevate to power instead of Augustus's adopted grandson, Agrippa.[47]  Augustus had banished Agrippina due to his indiscipline.[48] Tiberius probably did not order the murder of Agrippina.[49] Tiberius inherited 2/3’s of Augustus’s property.[50] Tiberius became consumed by lust and did indecent and criminal things to children.[51] He raped men and women. Livia, his mother, was an interesting, independently powerful, murderous, cunning, and intelligent player in past Roman politics.  Livia was known for her independent wealth, cunning, and intelligence at the Augustan court. Livia helped decide Augustus’s succession by putting Tiberius as Caius’s successor.

In modern-day politics in the current United States, there is significant backlash against immigrants in many parts of the country. For better or worse, or deservedly or not, that is a long discussion. Thousands of years ago there were slaves as well…. However, immigrants, especially illegal immigrants, had fewer rights in ancient Rome; this time period included almost 21 centuries ago. Even Augustus, one of the best emperors of all time, kicked out all foreign residents except teachers and doctors (during a food crisis). [52] While modern-day morals may be very different today than back then, that shows the modern-day immigrants conversation needs to be put into context. Historically, citizens had significant advantages over non-citizens, and the difficulty of becoming a citizen was widely different from time to time. Another major thing to consider is that modern-day morals are very different from historical morals. Protecting criminally convicted illegal immigrants even more than American citizens is certainly taking it too far. Augustus had a grandson that he adopted named Agrippina.

 Augustus at first adopted Agrippa’s grandson, Agrippina, and planned him as the successor. Agrippina was Augustus’s adopted grandson; Agrippina was Augustus's adopted grandson and the son of Agrippa; Augustus's favored and brilliant general. Augustus adopted Agrippina because he viewed him as a potential successor and valued his qualifications. Augustus adopted Agrippina because he viewed him as a potential successor and was viewed positively for his qualifications. Agrippa was given the permanent political office of the Tribune; he also built movements and gave resources to the Roman public.[53] He was one of Augustus's closest allies outside his immediate family. Agrippa served as Augustus's general in most of Augustus's military campaigns. Augustus built a large monument to Agrippa’s glory in the center of Rome. The take on Agrippa was that he was genuinely loyal to Augustus and also did not want the spotlight, which was rare back then. Agrippa was given high honors after he died.[54] After Agrippa died, Augustus named his grandson from his daughter Julia, Agrippa, after his favorite person.[55] Agrippa’s death and funeral caused so many people to arrive at Rome that the numbers that were there are typically only achieved “at calamities of the state”. Agrippa’s death was a calamity to the state because afterward Rome fell to war against the Pannonians.[56] This gave Augustus a large advantage and was key to his long-term success. Augustus Caesar changed the world permanently by overthrowing the Roman Republic.

Children, what is the importance of children? Children are the beginning of new heritage, the future, and the joy of their parents. They lead the legacy of the future of their parents. In Rome, children were extremely important; Romulus and Remus had invaded other cities to bear children.[57] Augustus went on a tirade against a man for not bearing children because having children was critical in the course of a Roman’s life.[58]  Not having children as a Roman would lead them to become despised. Having children as a Roman was important for the Roman Empire to produce enough soldiers, have economic surplus, and for greater Roman welfare. It also offered a piece of protection; they were less likely to go to war.

Augustus Caesar was a world-shaping leader who shared some traits with modern politicians. He resembles modern-day politicians like Bernie Sanders. This comparison may make sense because Augustus hated the nobles and Bernie Sanders campaigns against “the billionaire class.”[59] According to CBS News, the average family has lost approximately $1,000 since the start of the Iran war.[60] That $1,000 is a significant amount considering the minimum wage in the United States is just $7.15 an hour. It would take almost 140 hours of work at the federal minimum wage to earn that amount of money. This has placed financial strain on many Americans who live paycheck to paycheck, carry significant debt, or experience homelessness. However, Augustus Caesar does not emulate Bernie Sanders in his singularly controlling rule. Augustus overturned the Roman Republic and turned it into the Roman Empire, which caused long-lasting ramifications. His rise was preceded by his uncle Julius Caesar. Augustus Caesar expanded Rome’s borders, gave back to the poor, and strengthened Rome. His birth wasn’t notable; however, he rose quickly.  Augustus killed all of the main rivals to control Rome through war or “judicial murder.” [61] Augustus Caesar created a legacy that still resonates today. However, it should still be remembered that he was savage to his enemies. He contributed to the beautification and grandeur of Rome by restoring infrastructure, creating a fire brigade, rebuilding temples, sponsoring construction projects, and establishing political systems that supported the empire's success. Augustus Caesar created structural reforms that permanently changed the city of Rome, Italy, and the Roman Empire.

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Pictures of Rome:

Image #1. Picture of Roman Triumphal Arch

Roman Triumphal Arch

[1] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. J. B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007),  Pg.53

[2] Ibid pg. 51

[3] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. J. B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), pg. 48

[4] Chris Scarre, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995), pg. 48

[5] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. J. B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), pg. 43

[6] Ibid pg. 43

[7] Ibid. pg.43

[8] Ibid pg. 43

[9] Ibid pg. 44

[10] Ibid pg. 44

[11] Ross King, The Shortest History of Italy: 3,000 Years from the Romans to the Renaissance to a Modern Republic (New York: The Experiment, 2024), Pg. 73

[12] Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2015), pg. 339

[13] Ross King, The Shortest History of Italy: 3,000 Years from the Romans to the Renaissance to a Modern Republic (New York: The Experiment, 2024), Pg. 74

[14] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. J. B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), pg. 43

Pg. 47

[15] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. ed. by James B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), page number.  Pg. 45

[16] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. ed. by James B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), page number. Pg. 44

[17] Adrian Goldsworthy, Augustus: First Emperor of Rome (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014) Pg. 19.

[18] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. ed. by James B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), page number. Pg. 46

[19] Ibid pg. 46

[20] Ross King, The Shortest History of Italy: 3,000 Years from the Romans to the Renaissance to a Modern Republic (New York: The Experiment, 2024), Pg. 77

[21] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. J. B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007), pg. 45

[22] Adrian Goldsworthy, Augustus: First Emperor of Rome (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014) Pg. 129

[23] James Ermatinger, “ILS 77 and 78: The End of the Second Triumvirate,” Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 42, no. 1 (1993): 109, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4436274

[24] Ibid. pg. 110

[25] Adrian Goldsworthy, Augustus: First Emperor of Rome (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014)  Pg. 225

[26] Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, trans. Michael Grant (London: Penguin Books, 1956), Pg. 88

Ibid. Pg. 32

[27] Ibid pg. 31

[28]  Adrian Goldsworthy, Augustus: First Emperor of Rome (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014) Pg.152

[29] Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, trans. Michael Grant (London: Penguin Books, 1956), pg. 32

[30] Ibid pg. 32

[31] Chris Scarre, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995), page number. Pg.38

[32] Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. J. B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007) Pg. 54

[33] Adrian Goldsworthy, Augustus: First Emperor of Rome (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014) Pg. 224.

[34] Ibid pg. 224

[35] Lisa Pilar Eberle, “Making Roman Subjects: Citizenship and Empire before and after Augustus,” Transactions of the American Philological Association 147, no. 2 (2017): pg. 322

[36] Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, trans. Michael Grant (London: Penguin Books, 1956), pg. 16

[37] Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2015) pg. 340

[38] Ibid pg. 21

[39] Ibid pg. 21

[40] Ibid. pg. 32

[41] Adrian Goldsworthy, Augustus: First Emperor of Rome (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014) Pg. 224.

[42] Ibid. pg. 241

[43] Ibid. pg. 240

[44] Adrian Goldsworthy, Augustus: First Emperor of Rome (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014) Pg. 161

[45] Ibid. Pg. 161

[46] Ibid. pg. 161

[47] Tacitus, The Annals of Imperial Rome, trans. Michael Grant (London: Penguin Books, 1956), Pg. 32

[48]  Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. J. B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007) Pg. 98

[49] Ibid pg. 112

[50] Ibid pg. pg. 113

[51] Ibid pg. 125

[52]  Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, trans. Robert Graves, rev. J. B. Rives (New York: Penguin Classics, 2007) Pg. 68

[53] Adrian Goldsworthy, Augustus: First Emperor of Rome (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014) Pg. 356

[54] Dio, Cassius. Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. 9 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1914–1927. Pg. 182

[55] Ibid pg. 182

[56] Ibid pg. 183

[57] Dio, Cassius. Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. 9 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1914–1927. Pg. 226

[58] Dio, Cassius. Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. 9 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1914–1927. Pg. 227

[59] Bernie Sanders, “The Billionaire Class No Longer Sees Itself As Part Of …,” YouTube video, posted by YouTube, accessed July 6, 2026, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Tb8jWDrLlQ

[60] Mary Cunningham, “Iran War Has Cost Americans $1,000 per Household, Economist Estimates,” CBS News, June 29, 2026, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/iran-war-cost-american-households/

[61] Ibid Pg. 32